Pistol: Pupil invisible supportive tool in the wild
This paper is an in the wild evaluation of the eye tracking tool Pistol. Pistol supports Pupil Invisible projects and other eye trackers (Dikablis, Emke GmbH, Look, Pupil, and many more) in offline mode. For all eye tracking recordings, Pistol is able to compute pupil and iris ellipse, eye aperture, eye lids, 3D eye ball, optical vector estimation, and eye movement types. For Pupil Invisible projects, it also supports the detection of a special marker and allows the 2D and 3D gaze estimation mapped on the scene camera. In this extended journal paper for Pistol we focus on challenging in the wild situations, such as reflections on glasses, eye tracking during sport, changing lighting conditions, and this for two eye trackers. The tool Pistol can be downloaded here Link
Eye Tracking Glasses
Software
Quantitative Analysis of Physiological and Psychological Impacts of Visual and Auditory Elements in Wuyishan National Park Using Eye-Tracking
Amidst rapid societal changes and increasing urbanization, human connectivity with nature has declined, exacerbating public health concerns. This study assesses the efficacy of Shinrin-yoku, or ‘forest bathing’, in Wuyishan National Park as a simple and effective method to counteract the adverse health effects of contemporary lifestyles. Employing repeated-measures analysis of variance, forty-one participants were observed over three days across eight distinct forest settings. Techniques included eye-tracking for visual attention and soundscape perception assessments via questionnaires. Physiological responses were gauged through heart rate variability and skin conductance, while psychological evaluations utilized the Profile of Mood States (POMS) and Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). Findings revealed that (1) natural soundscapes—especially birdsong, flowing water, wind, and bamboo raft sounds—and visual elements, such as distant mountains, streams, trees, Danxia landforms, tea gardens, and bamboo views, play pivotal roles in regulating heart rate variability, reducing arousal, and enhancing stress adaptation. Additionally, cultural landscapes, such as classical music and ancient structures, bolster parasympathetic activity. (2) Natural and cultural auditory stimuli, including flowing water and classical music, coupled with visual features, such as Danxia landforms, streams, distant mountains, lawns, and guide signs, effectively induce positive mood states, regulate mood disturbances, and enhance psychological well-being across diverse forest settings. These findings underscore the significant health benefits of immersive natural experiences and advocate for integrating forest-based wellness programs into public health strategies, offering compelling evidence for enriching life quality through nature engagement.
Eye Tracking Glasses
Software
Recognition of marine navigators’ workload based on eye movement features using bridge simulation
The human factor accounts for 80% of marine traffic accidents, either directly or indirectly. Workload significantly impacts the reliability of marine navigators’ behavior. Employing eye movement measurement as an objective assessment tool can effectively evaluate seafarers’ workload. This study conducts bridge simulation experiments to analyze eye movement features and investigate marine navigators’ workload levels across different tasks. By categorizing marine navigators’ workload into high and low levels based on specific navigation duties, the study employs an independent sample T-test to select blink frequency, fixation time percentage, and pupil area standard deviation as key eye movement features for workload recognition. A marine navigators’ workload recognition model is developed utilizing the support vector machine (SVM) algorithm, which is subsequently trained and evaluated with experimental data. Results demonstrate a high recognition rate of 90.91% for marine navigators’ workload, indicating the SVM method’s accuracy in workload assessment based on eye movement features. These findings lay the foundation for the advancement of intelligent monitoring systems for marine navigators’ workload and the implementation of human–computer interaction active early warning technology and equipment.
The effects of tunnel radius, turn direction, and zone characteristics on drivers’ visual performance
This study aimed to explore the influence of the tunnel radius, turn direction, and zone characteristics on drivers’ visual performance. The study used a field experiment, in which 30 participants drove real vehicles in different curved tunnels, and measured their fixation duration (FD), fixation frequency (FF), saccade duration (SD), and saccade amplitude (SA) as indicators of visual performance. The results showed that the tunnel radius, turn direction, and zone characteristics had significant effects on all four indicators of visual performance. As the tunnel radius decreases, drivers exhibit longer FD and larger SA, while FF and SD decrease correspondingly. Additionally, the directional aspect of turning significantly influences these eye movement parameters, with drivers demonstrating longer FD, lower FF, shorter SD, and smaller SA during left turns compared to right turns. Irrespective of turning direction, drivers allocate the longest average FD and highest FF in the entrance zone, followed by the middle zone, and the shortest duration in the exit zone under the same tunnel radius condition. Similarly, the mean SD and amplitude are highest in the exit zone, followed by the middle zone, and lowest in the entrance zone, regardless of the turning condition. These findings suggest that drivers adjust their visual behavior according to the dynamic and complex visual stimuli and the varying driving task demands in different scenarios of curved tunnel driving. These findings also imply that drivers face different perceptual and cognitive challenges and preferences when driving in curved tunnels with different radii, turn directions, and zone characteristics, which affect their visual adaptation and preparation processes, as well as their visual integration and differentiation processes. This study has some implications and suggestions for the design and management of curved tunnels, as well as for the education and training of drivers. This study also provides new theoretical and empirical evidence for the visual behavior and cognition of drivers in curved tunnels, and provides practical suggestions for enhancing their visual performance and improving their driving safety and efficiency in curved tunnels.
Eye Tracking Glasses
Simulator
The Role of Visuomotor Behaviours in Understanding the Functionality of Upper Limb Prostheses
Advanced upper limb prostheses aim to restore coordinated hand and arm function. However, this objective can be difficult to quantify as coordinated movements require an intact visuomotor system. Eye tracking has recently been applied to study the visuomotor behaviours of upper limb prosthesis users by enabling the calculation of eye movement metrics. This scoping review aims to characterize the visuomotor behaviours of upper limb prosthesis users as described by eye tracking metrics, to summarize the eye tracking metrics used to describe prosthetic behaviour, and to identify gaps in the literature and potential areas for future research. A review of the literature was performed to identify articles that reported eye tracking metrics to evaluate the visual behaviours of individuals using an upper limb prosthesis. Data on the level of amputation, type of prosthetic device, type of eye tracker, primary eye metrics, secondary outcome metrics, experimental task, aims, and key findings were extracted. Seventeen studies were included in this scoping review. A consistently reported finding is that prosthesis users have a characteristic visuomotor behaviour that differs from that of individuals with intact arm function. Visual attention has been reported to be directed more towards the hand and less towards the target during object manipulation tasks. A gaze switching strategy and delay to disengage gaze from the current target has also been reported. Differences in the type of prosthetic device and experimental task have revealed some distinct gaze behaviours. Control factors have been shown to be related to gaze behaviour, while sensory feedback and training interventions have been demonstrated to reduce the visual attention associated with prosthesis use. Eye tracking metrics have also been used to assess the cognitive load and sense of agency of prosthesis users. Overall, there is evidence that eye tracking is an effective tool to quantitatively assess the visuomotor behaviour of prosthesis users and the recorded eye metrics are sensitive to change in response to various factors. Additional studies are needed to validate the eye metrics used to assess cognitive load and sense of agency in upper limb prosthesis users.
Eye Tracking Glasses
Software
Training benefits driver behaviour while using automation with an attention monitoring system
Attention, or more generally, driver monitoring systems have been identified as a necessity to address overreliance on driving automation. However, research suggests that monitoring systems may not be sufficient to support safe use of advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS), also evidenced by a recent major recall of Tesla’s monitoring software. The objective of the current study was to investigate whether different training approaches improve driver behaviour while using ADAS with an attention monitoring system. A driving simulator study was conducted with three between-subject groups: no training, limitation-focused training (highlighted situations where ADAS would not work), and responsibility-focused training (highlighted the driver’s role/responsibility while using ADAS). All participants (N = 47) experienced eight events which required the ego-vehicle to slow down to avoid a collision. Anticipatory cues in the environment indicated the potential for the upcoming events. Event type (covered in training vs. not covered) and event criticality (action-necessary vs. action-not-necessary) were within-subject factors. The responsibility-focused group made fewer long glances (≥ 3 s) to a secondary task than the no training and limitation-focused groups when there were no anticipatory cues. Responsibility-focused training and no training were associated with faster takeover time at the events than limitation-focused training. There were additional benefits of responsibility-focused training for events that were covered in training (e.g., higher percent of time looking at the anticipatory cues). Overall, our results suggest that even if attention monitoring systems are implemented, there may be benefits to driver ADAS training. Responsibility-focused training may be preferable to limitation-focused training, especially for situations where minimizing training length is advantageous.
Usability Assessments in User Studies on Human-Machine Interfaces for Conditionally Automated Driving: Effects of the Context of Use
The introduction of conditionally automated driving (CAD) entails a paradigm change in automotive mobility. For the first time, the driver is temporarily released from the responsibility of the driving task. This paradigm change challenges the development of human-machine interfaces (HMIs) facilitating the intended and safe interaction. User studies on the usability of such HMIs are commonly conducted in driving simulators and within one single culture. Identifying the potential effects of this context of use is crucial for the validity of research conducted in the HMI development. Following a review of the relevant literature, five research questions are derived that are addressed in this thesis. A systematic literature review offers insights into common research practices of studies on the usability of HMIs for CAD. Following, a best practice advice is developed. The advice builds the basis for the experimental design for two of the three validation studies conducted in this thesis (Exp_Testing-Environment & Exp_Culture). The first validation study, Exp_Testing-Environment, investigates the effect of the testing environment on usability assessments. An experiment conducted in a static driving simulator is compared to an otherwise identical experiment conducted in an instrumented vehicle on a test track. The findings suggest relative validity but no absolute validity. The study concludes that problems with HMI concepts identified in the driving simulator will likely be more pronounced in test track experiments. Based on the findings, driving simulators are deemed a valid tool. The second validation study, Exp_Culture, investigates the effect of the users’ cultural background on the usability assessment by comparing the usability ratings of U.S.-American participants to German participants. Regarding absolute validity, the database needs to be more conclusive. The findings, however, confirm relative validity. The study concludes that the results of usability assessments may be transferred across cultures of the Western industrialized world. Limitations are expected only regarding the usability facet satisfaction. The third validation study, Survey_Culture, addresses the effect of the users’ cultural background on the subjective importance ratings of usability factors. The comparison of U.S.- American and German ratings shows neither considerable nor systematic cultural effects. In line with Exp_Culture, this study concludes that usability assessments may be conducted within one culture of the Western industrialized world. The findings of the three validation studies are consolidated in a set of preliminary recommendations. The set is discussed and refined in an expert workshop. The final 12 recommendations suggest methods for conducting user studies on the usability of HMIs in the context of CAD. This thesis provides novel empirical findings on experimental methods in user studies on usability assessments, focusing on the validity of usability assessments in varying contexts of use. Based on prevalent literature and an expert workshop, the results are consolidated and refined. Concluding, the thesis contributes to the advancement of valid research methods for conducting usability assessments of HMIs for CAD.
Using eye tracking to support professional learning in vision-intensive professions: a case of aviation pilots
In an authentic flight simulator, the instructor is traditionally located behind the learner and is thus unable to observe the pilot’s visual attention (i.e. gaze behavior). The focus of this article is visual attention in relation to pilots’ professional learning in an Airbus A320 Full Flight Simulator. For this purpose, we measured and analyzed pilots’ visual scanning behavior during flight simulation-based training. Eye-tracking data were collected from the participants (N = 15 pilots in training) to objectively and non-intrusively study their visual attention behavior. First, we derived and compared the visual scanning patterns. The descriptive statistics revealed the pilots’ visual scanning paths and whether they followed the expected flight protocol. Second, we developed a procedure to automate the analysis. Specifically, a Hidden Markov model (HMM) was used to automatically capture the actual phases of pilots’ visual scanning. The advantage of this technique is that it is not bound to manual assessment based on graphs or descriptive data. In addition, different scanning patterns can be revealed in authentic learning situations where gaze behavior is not known in advance. Our results illustrate that HMM can provide a complementary approach to descriptive statistics. Implications for future research are discussed, including how artificial intelligence in education could benefit from the HMM approach.
