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External focus strategy improves visuomotor control of gait in older adults

Few studies have adopted external focus strategies to mitigate the negative effects of conscious movement processing in older adults. We investigated whether a single-session intervention (SSI) using an external focus could improve gait stability and visual search behaviors during adaptive locomotion in older adults. Methods We randomly allocated 112 older adults to either an external focus (EXT, n = 56) or a control group (CON, n = 56). Participants performed an obstacle circumvention walking task along an 8-m walkway for five trials at pre-intervention (T0), post-intervention (T1), and retention (T2). The training phase consisted of 20 walking trials with obstacle circumvention. EXT focused on digits displayed on monitors at their path destinations during walking, while CON walked naturally without any specific instructions. Gait kinematics (i.e., gait variabilities and body sway) and visual search data were collected at T0, T1, and T2. Results Only EXT reduced body sway and variability of spatial and temporal gait parameters, while increasing gait speed when comparing T1 and T2 to T0. EXT also reduced the number of visual fixation and fixation duration percentage on the ground while increasing fixation duration percentage on the destination when comparing T1 and T2 to T0. Conclusions This study is the first to explore SSI with an external focus in older adults, providing evidence of significant improvements in gait stability and visual search behaviors that facilitate feedforward planning. Practicing with an external focus strategy could be recommended as an adjunctive psychomotor approach in clinical settings to enhance visuomotor performance in older adults.

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Eye-tracking technology in science education: A systematic review

Eye-tracking technology is increasingly used in science education research, but its benefits and potential insights remain debated. This review explores its value and limitations through an analysis of its applications in the field. We reviewed 103 eye- tracking studies published between 2014 and 2025 to examine research areas and topics, instrument usage, participant demographics, interpretations of eye-movement indicators, and data processing methods. Results indicate that: (1) Eye-tracking has consistently attracted attention in science education over the past decade, with findings published in cognitive psychology, science education, and educational technology journals;(2) The three most studied topics are Classroom Contexts and Learner Characteristics, Students’ Conceptions and Conceptual Change, and Teaching;(3) Participants were predominantly higher education students, with most studies involving fewer than 120 participants, and the largest subset involving 30-50 participants;(4) Tobii, SR Research, and SMI are the most frequently used eye- tracker brands;(5) The division of AOIs mainly depends on research objectives and experimental tasks, with most based on functional attributes;(6) Eye-movement indicators fall into three categories: cognitive processing, attention distribution, and search strategies. Fixation count, total fixation time, and fixation duration are the most commonly used; (7) All studies used descriptive statistics, with some also incorporating emerging methods like complex network and entropy analysis.

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Formation and Development of Mental Models in Partial and Conditional Driving Automation

With the introduction of assisted and automated driving functions, driver-vehicle interaction fundamentally changes. In that context, drivers’ mental models of these functions play a central role. However, due to the novelty of these systems it can be assumed that a lack of knowledge and misconceptions of automated functions are common among drivers. For this reason, this thesis sought to shed light on the question of how the formation of adequate mental models can be supported, and to derive recommendations on the design of driver instruction for assisted and automated driving functions. In a first study (N = 45), the effect of lack of information prior to the first assisted/automated drive on drivers’ mental model formation, attitudes, and interaction with the automated vehicle was assessed. The results of this study emphasize the relevance of driver instruction and its benefits for mental model formation and attitudes towards the vehicle. Based on these findings, the focus of the following three studies was to develop recommendations for approaches to driver instruction. In that context, intrinsic motivation to learn can be expected to be central to enhance learning outcomes. In an online study (N = 220), elements aimed at enhancing learning motivation were added to an instruction on assisted and automated functions, and their effects on learner motivation and mental model formation was assessed. Results indicate that elements providing feedback to the learner on their progress on the instruction help to increase learning motivation. Based on this finding, a gamified instruction was developed and subsequently evaluated in a driving simulator study (N = 65). Gamification is expected to increase intrinsic motivation and thus learning outcomes. Indeed, this study showed that gamification benefits learning motivation, mental model formation, and reliance behaviour. In order to make user education easily accessible to drivers, the fourth study within this thesis comprised the development and evaluation of a tutorial concept that supports drivers during their first drive with an automated vehicle. Results (N = 32) indicate that learning during the drive can be as efficient as before the drive, and benefits acceptance of the automated driving function as well as driver interaction with it. Overall, this thesis provides recommendations for the design of driver education for drivers of current and future automated vehicles. It emphasizes the need to consider learner motivation as a central element of instructional design and provides evidence of the positive effects that low threshold driver education for automated functions can have.

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Gaze Behavior in Shooting in Basketball: From Research to Evidence-Based Quiet-Eye Training

This chapter discusses the quiet eye (QE) in different types of basketball shots - the free-throw shot, the jump shot, and the three-point shot. For each type of shot, the author discusses the literature on descriptive studies that mainly examined differences between expert and less-expert players, and interventional studies where the QE is practiced by players of different skill levels. The author then elaborates on how QE instructions can be included in a training session, as well as in a pre-shooting routine.

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Group cycling in urban environments: Analyzing visual attention and riding performance for enhanced road safety

China is a major cycling nation with nearly 400 million bicycles, significantly alleviating urban traffic congestion. However, safety concerns are prominent, with approximately 35% of cyclists forming groups with family, friends, or colleagues, exerting a significant impact on the traffic system. This study focuses on group cycling, employing urban cycling experiments, GPS trajectory tracking, and eye-tracking to analyze the visual search, and cycling control of both groups and individuals. Findings reveal that group cyclists tend to focus more on companions, leading to a dispersed gaze pattern compared to individual riders who focus more on the direct path and surroundings. Group riders also exhibit shorter fixation times on traffic signs, potentially indicating decreased attention to traffic regulations. Despite similar lateral position deviation, group cyclists exhibit higher steering entropy, indicating greater variability in their steering choices. Additionally, group riders demonstrate varied passing times, suggesting a collective advantage in navigating complex traffic conditions. This study enhances our understanding of bicycles within traffic dynamics, offering valuable insights for traffic management systems.

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How does campus-scape influence university students’ restorative experiences: Evidences from simultaneously collected physiological and psychological data

"Time in nature" is widely acknowledged as beneficial for physical and psychological health. The landscape environment of campus – referred to as "campus-scape" – plays a crucial role in influencing students’ mental health. It provides outdoor spaces where university students sought for relief and recreation, yet it remains under-researched. In this study, we address a limitation in the static assessment of restorative effects of campus-scape, and extend the focus from visual to non-visual and event landscape, using simultaneously collected psychological and physiological data from an on-site walking experiment (n = 40). This study examined how different types of campus-scape affect university students' restorative experiences by analyzing stress and attention restoration using wearable sensors, alongside perceptional psychological data from questionnaires and interviews. Our results revealed significant differences in the restorative effects of various campus-scape, and the influences were further characterized by visual, non-visual, and event landscape. We have several key findings: (1) 93 % of students reported above-medium stress levels and 72 % experience attention fatigue, highlighting a strong need for restorative campus-scape; (2) Patchy green-blue landscape performs best in stress recovery, followed by linear green-blue landscape and teaching spaces, while living spaces especially the commuting paths were the least restorative, as indicated by physiological electrodermal activity (EDA) and psychological perceived restorative scale (PRS).Meanwhile, most participants experienced attention restoration post-walk across campus-scape types, interestingly subjective self-reported data (FS-14) underestimated the effects compared with objective tests (DSB and TMTB); (3) Within visual landscape, lower landscape segmentation, fewer building views, more welldesigned landscape facilities, and abundant waterbodies, green, and sky views are significantly associated with better stress recovery; (4) Non-visual landscape like thermal conditions, soundscape, and olfactory landscape, along with event landscape–occasional, staged, and routine events–also influence the restorative effects of campus-scape. The aesthetic qualities of campus-scape and capacity for recreational activities are key to students' restorative experiences. Therefore, campusscape designers should prioritize the planning of patchy green-blue spaces and consider enhancing visual, non-visual, and event landscape simultaneously in design guidelines to improve university students' mental well-being.

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Image-analysis-based method for exploring factors influencing the visual saliency of signage in metro stations

Many studies have been conducted on the effects of colour, light, and signage location on the visual saliency of underground signage. However, few studies have investigated the influence of indoor visual environments on the saliency of pedestrian signage. To explore the factors that influence the visual saliency of signage in metro stations, we developed a novel analysis method using a combination of saliency and focus maps. Then, questionnaires were utilised to unify the various formats of results from the saliency and focus maps. The factors that influence the visual saliency of signage were explored using the proposed method at selected sites and validated through virtual reality experiments. Additionally, this study proposes an image-analysis-based method that reveals the multilevel factors affecting pedestrian attention to signage in underground metro stations, including spatial interfaces, crowd flow, and ambient light. The results indicate that crowd flow has the greatest impact on pedestrian attention to signage. The findings of this study are expected to improve the wayfinding efficiency of pedestrians and assist designers in producing high-quality metro experiences.

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Impact of multi-dimensional cognitive demands on takeover performance, physiological and eye-tracking measures in conditionally automated vehicles

Before fully autonomous vehicles come true, drivers are still required to be responsible for driving safety and take over control of the vehicle when prompted by takeover requests in conditionally automated vehicles. Thus, drivers’ takeover performance can affect the safety of conditionally automated driving. However, though cognitive distraction can impair takeover performance in general, the influence of multi-dimensionality in the cognitive resources was under-investigated. At the same time, it is unknown how physiological and eye-tracking metrics are associated with different modalities of cognitive tasks in conditionally automated vehicles. Thus, through a driving simulation study with 42 participants, we investigated the effects of multidimensional cognitive demands, as imposed by multiple types of non-driving-related tasks, on drivers’ takeover performance, physiological responses, and eye-tracking metrics in conditionally automated vehicles. Results showed that certain takeover performance (i.e., vehicle speed and lateral acceleration), and physiological and eye-tracking metrics (i.e., differences between consecutive R-peaks, skin conductance level, variation in respiratory intervals, number of fixations, number of saccades and saccade angle) are still responsive to cognitive load in the context of driving automation. Further, the modality of the cognitive tasks can moderate the takeover performance (i.e., takeover time) and certain physiological (i.e., ratio of spectral power in the low- and high-frequency range and respiration depth) metrics. These findings suggest that, in future conditionally automated vehicles, in-vehicle task designs should consider the modality of the cognitive demands for driving safety and for the performance of the driver monitoring systems.

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Impact of observational modeling on quiet eye duration and free-throw performance in basketball

Modeling of observation-based training offers a way for beginners to get ready to learn new abilities and handle challenging tasks. However, neither the composed effects of these techniques nor their underlying mechanisms have been studied. Therefore, the current study investigated the effect of expert and novice observational modeling and gaze behavior on free-throw basketball performance in novices and analyzed the mechanisms that facilitate learning with a quiet eye. Forty-eight novice student (age = 26.37 ± 3.12 years, height = 175.62 ± 7.40 cm) participants contributed to this research. They were arbitrarily divided into four groups: expert model with gaze guidance (EGG), expert model without gaze guidance (EWGG), novice model with gaze guidance (NGG), and novice model without gaze guidance (NWGG). Pre- and post-tests (acquisition and retention) were conducted to assess the participants' quiet eye and the performance of basketball free-throw skills. The participants underwent five consecutive days of observational learning with and without gaze guidance, followed by physical training. All throws were done with the dominant hand (right). Results indicated performance improvement effects of EGG & NGG models with longer eye quiet duration accompanying it than EWGG & NWGG models (P ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, in line with our prediction, long eye-quiet duration is linked with improved performance in motor learning tasks. It also facilitates the process of learning motor skills. The findings suggest the efficiency and effectiveness of the gaze behavior method and its positive impact on motor skills' observational learning modeling method.

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In-Vehicle Displays for Supporting Operation of Driving Automation Systems: Design and Evaluation using Driver Gaze Measures

In-vehicle displays can support the safe operation of driving automation systems, but a challenge lies in balancing the information conveyed against situational demands. Driver gaze measures are a useful tool for evaluating such displays as they can provide a proxy for driver attention, particularly when the driver is not physically controlling the vehicle. The objective of this dissertation is to systematically identify the design space for displays aimed at supporting safe operation of automation and provide a comprehensive review of their evaluation using gaze measures. First, a scoping literature review revealed extensive research focus on takeover requests, with relatively less focus on informational displays that communicate the automation’s intent or explicitly identify hazards. Surprisingly, there was little focus on displays that monitor and manage driver attention, which are becoming increasingly available and mandated in some jurisdictions. The gaze measures adopted for evaluation mostly relied on static areas of interest that were not dependent on traffic context.

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External focus strategy improves visuomotor control of gait in older adults

Eye-tracking technology in science education: A systematic review

Formation and Development of Mental Models in Partial and Conditional Driving Automation

Gaze Behavior in Shooting in Basketball: From Research to Evidence-Based Quiet-Eye Training

Group cycling in urban environments: Analyzing visual attention and riding performance for enhanced road safety

How does campus-scape influence university students’ restorative experiences: Evidences from simultaneously collected physiological and psychological data

Image-analysis-based method for exploring factors influencing the visual saliency of signage in metro stations

Impact of multi-dimensional cognitive demands on takeover performance, physiological and eye-tracking measures in conditionally automated vehicles

Impact of observational modeling on quiet eye duration and free-throw performance in basketball

In-Vehicle Displays for Supporting Operation of Driving Automation Systems: Design and Evaluation using Driver Gaze Measures

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